Create a research portrait of a well-known artist, explain how his or Essay

Make an exploration representation of a notable craftsman, clarify how their work reacts to specific social issues - Essay Example ject, requiring the craftsman to go through years painting in wet mortar as opposed to dealing with his model or different ventures, some may think about what incited Michelangelo to attempt this task as opposed to permitting some other craftsman the questionable respect. Exactly how much opportunity Michelangelo had in this choice is a frequently examined subject. It may likewise be pondered whether the subject of the artwork was controlled by Michelangelo himself or the Pope who authorized him for the venture. To all the more completely welcome the procedure that added to the production of the Sistine Ceiling, it is important to comprehend the insights about the commission of the undertaking, why it was appointed, why Michelangelo acknowledged the commission given the troubles in question, how he met these difficulties given the media and subject required just as his last appraisal of the outcomes. It is broadly acknowledged that Pope Julius II authorized Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel roof as none other had the force and position to drive the craftsman back to Rome. Michelangelo had fled the city just two years sooner after the Pope previously dispatched him to make roughly 40 figures in the most sumptuous Papal burial place intended to date and afterward would not respect his bit of the agreement. What's more, the work being mentioned of Michelangelo was painting as opposed to mold which he liked. Different records demonstrate having the roof finished by Michelangelo was the possibility of Donato Bramante, who planned to dishonor Michelangelo’s overwhelming notoriety. â€Å"In Michelangelo’s eyes, Bramante had convinced the pope to forsake the undertaking [of the tomb] by notice him that it was misfortune to have one’s burial chamber cut during one’s lifetime, and had then proposed an out and out various commission for the artist, an ass ignment at which he realized Michelangelo couldn't in any way, shape or form succeed† (King, 2003, p. 11). Work started on the venture in 1536 under Pope Paul III and was

Article critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Article scrutinize - Essay Example Sections are utilized to structure the contentions and to give a succession to each point made. The language is very compact and easy to comprehend. Not exceptionally significant terms have been plainly characterized. There is some suspicion with respect to the writer that the peruser of the content is as of now acquainted with the subject of Islamic convention and culture somewhat. For instance, terms, for example, ‘Sharia law’ and Gallup poll’ are not plainly clarified however are utilized inside the content. These terms are very explicit and require elaboration for those new to such phrasing. There is adequate proof for the contentions. Each point is all around upheld up by reference to existing laws, writing, models, citations and contentions for influential people in the field and supporting proof of numerous types. Indeed the contentions bolster the primary concern as they are profoundly applicable to the topic. By belligerence and featuring different contrasts in Muslim men’s and women’s rights under Islamic law and offering models, this backings the general case that there is a bad form around there which should be tended to. The content is fitting for the target group generally. It offers an essential outline of the issue with some foundation and chronicled and political setting and it is clarified in an unmistakable and organized manner. In any case, there is opportunity to get better in that a few terms ought to be all the more obviously clarified. To a degree, the content causes me to comprehend the subject. It gives a foundation and cultural setting to the contention which is useful and it offers contextual investigations and guides to feature the focuses. Along these lines, it is very easy to appreciate. One specific sentence evoked a solid reaction from me; â€Å"In the United States, numerous Muslim young ladies and ladies decide to wear hijab†. I saw this sentence as extremely astonishing. The creator expresses this sentence in the main passage following

How to Write and When to Write - Which Instrument Families Are Better?

How to Write and When to Write - Which Instrument Families Are Better?If you are looking for essay topics to answer for the upcoming exams, then you have probably considered some of the online essay writing instruction essay instrument families. This is a good approach and it will help you reach your targets; but, a question will arise in your mind like, which essay topics are better and why?We all know that essay topics are very important and when we choose them we get satisfaction, that is if the topics are all right for us. This is not the case. You should always try to come up with good topics even if it is a lot of work. That is the reason why, it is advisable to use article instruments as the best choice in the essay topics.This is because of the fact that these are designed in such a way that they are easy to follow. It is also a fact that many people have tried to use these articles, but they had failed. This was the same for me. I too had tried writing these and failed.The r eason for my failure was because I didn't follow the process of how to write these essay topics. I think that the solution is pretty simple and straightforward. The main reason was that I did not know what I was supposed to do.Writing an essay is not a very difficult process. It is a matter of putting the right thoughts and ideas in your essay. For this reason, there is no need to create complex essay topics. The best way to write the topics is to take note of what has been written by someone else.It is very obvious that you don't want to copy anything and get to the point, so, if you are a beginner then you need to start learning from an expert. That is the best way to start. That is exactly what you need to do and that is what I am doing now. I was given an assignment and it is a great one; one in which you should be able to answer the test in a short period of time.The question is 'How to write articles within a short time without reading them?' Well, I can only give you a few an swers but that's why I have come up with the instrument. This article is a review on the following instrument families: Do You Write and When You Write?The Do You Write and When You Write Instrument families help you improve your writing skills so that you can reach your goals. This can be done by writing short sentences and paragraphs. In addition, you will find that you write your essay topics without using any articles.

The United States Of The Middle East - 1204 Words

As years went by those who opposed the leadership of these despotic leaders were locked behind bars. Moreover, public exchequer was mismanaged. As their leadership realm and powers were strengthened, the civil rights of citizens to democracy and politics were negated. In some cases such as in Libya and Egypt, leaders such as Muammar Gaddafi initially had revolutionary slogans eventually took over power. However, these leaders did not strive to ensure that it was devolved to the masses. As such, the status of citizens reduced to that of aliens. The approach of the US strategy in the Middle East was to support Israel and to ensure status quo through endorsement of various autocratic leaders (Kivimà ¤ki 18). Thus, democracy was excluded†¦show more content†¦15). His actions brought to light the widespread discontent among the population of Tunisia. Thousands of citizens that were unsatisfied with the status quo marched to streets, marking the start of widespread anti-governmen t demonstrations throughout the country. Bouazizi lost his life on January 4th the following year. The country’s president was also forced to leave the country ten days later. A few months later, valance spread to other countries within the Middle East. Within a period of one year, the uprising had claimed four of the region’s longest serving leaders. The upheaval had a number of grounds, one of which was economics (Aissa 2). After gaining independence from colonial powers, most Arab countries embraced development and became major global players (Douglas 6). Socialist development philosophies were pursued by Arab countries including Yemen, Iraq, Egypt, and Libya. As years went by, oil prices fell. This resulted to the collapse of the socialist labor division. The economic models that had been embraced by various Middle East countries proved to be ineffective and produce sustainability and competitiveness. The economic situation of these countries was worsened by the global economic crisis of 2008. Additionally, though respective governments attempted to implement economic reforms, this too proved to be unsuccessful especially due to the fact that it was not accompanied by democratization. TheShow MoreRelatedThe United States And The Middle East831 Words   |  4 PagesOver the past decade, the Middle East has proven to be a complex quandary that the United States is ultimately unequipped to handle. Before the U.S. can possibly pacify the region, it must first work to conquer obstacles domestically. The U.S. should also recognize the source of conflict in the Middle East and use this knowledge in the future as a foundation for a solution to amity. Thus, the approach that the United States should employ in regards to the Middle East is to gradually pull out andRead MoreThe United States And The Middle East1245 Words   |  5 Pagesmuch of the United States’ history, affairs in the Middle East have been an important focus. A more rec ent example is President Barack Obama attempting to deal with the terrorist organization, ISIS, because they are threatening the security of American allies. In the past, multiple other presidents have intervened in Middle Eastern affairs because they believe that doing so would be in the best interest of the United States. The importance of Middle Eastern affairs to the United States during theRead MoreThe United States And The Middle East1351 Words   |  6 Pagesto conceptualize this. The United States has broken into another civil war with all 50 states claiming independence. Your Neighbors, friends, family being killed. You don t have a home because it as blown up. And all your worried about is how to find you and your families next meal. You beg and try everything to leave this area even daring to ride a rubber boat to have the chance of safety and a normal life. But in this scenario The Middle East is the thriving united nation that stands for theRead MoreThe United States And The Middle East1653 Words   |  7 Pagesthe past decade, wars and interventions in the Middle East have broken up existing states, fostered sectarianism and destroyed infrastructures, creating the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. After years of revolutionary upheaval, the Arab world s old system is on the verge of collapse. The United States and other countries bear the blame for this emergence and growth of the indigenous movements like the Taliban, AL-Qaeda, and IS. Order in the Middle East has been undermined by corrupt and illegitimateRead MoreUnited States And The Middle East1311 Words   |  6 PagesA Review of United States’ Policy in the Middle East The crux of the institution of government from the untenable state of nature that subsisted in the days gone by was for the protection of life, liberty and property. The doctrine of individual unilateral discretion which provided a fertile ground for the domination of the strong over the weak in society diminished in significance. So sacrosanct was the need to protect the rights and freedoms of all people that all and sundry gave up theirRead MoreThe United States And The Middle East834 Words   |  4 PagesFor decades, the United States and fellow western nations have been heavily involved with and invested in the Middle East. Geographically, the Middle East region contains a large percentage of the industrialized world’s most prized resource, oil. Throughout this time, the United States has participated in Gulf War I, Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation Southern Watch, Operation Northern Watch, and numerous other contingencies and operati ons. Most recently, the regionRead MoreThe United States And The Middle East2128 Words   |  9 Pagesthe Middle East began to lose influence over the area. In 1946, France and Great Britain were forced to withdrawal from their colonized states by the United Nation Security Council when a delegation of the Middle Eastern countries called for the removal the colonial mandates on Middle East, specifically in Palestine (Department of Public Information). While Britain and France did not completely abandon their influence over the area, the removal of their direct influence over the Middle East leftRead MoreThe United States Relations with the Middle East2681 Words   |  11 PagesThe United States was heavily involved in Middle-Eastern affairs during the latter half of the twentieth century. Following the election of President Eisenhower in 1952, the U.S.’s growing fear of Iranian nationalism and the potential spread of communism throughout the Persian Gulf ultimately coaxed U.S. forces into helping the British’ MI6 oust the Iranian Prime Minister, Mohammad Mossadegh, from power. The CIA successfully overthrew Mossadegh and created a power vacuum in the Middle East, in 1953Read MoreThe Tensions Between The United States And The Middle East924 Words   |  4 PagesFollowing September 11, 2001, there seemed to be a sense of fear towards Arabs and Muslims in America. Since then, the tension between the United States and the Middle East has escalated. Based on the attention terrorist attacks receive, stereotypes tend to arise toward Muslims. Terrorists can be any ethnicity or religion, but typically jihadist terrorists’ gain the most attention in the media and the press. In America, Arabs, Muslims, and Jihadists tend to all get grouped together, even though theyRead MoreThe Conflict Between The United States And The Middle East Essay2176 Words   |  9 PagesThe conflict between the United States and the Middle East is of great concern in t he world today because of the heightened tensions in Syria, which is being terrorized by the radical Islamic group called ISIS. ISIS is not only creating conflict in the Middle East, they are also a homeland security threat to the United States because of the fear of terrorist attacks. Scholars and Theorists like Samuel Huntington have addressed the question of why states are experiencing heightened tension and have

The Influence of Reality TV on Society Essay - 2125 Words

According to Medical Procedure News, reality television is contributing to cosmetic surgery procedures, with more than 9.2 million procedures performed as a result of people watching reality shows. Unlike the daily fictional television shows that fill one’s life, reality shows reflect the life one lives daily, thus having a greater impact on the viewer and popular culture as a whole. Reality programs reflection of society not only helps shape popular culture but reinforces traditional family values, morals, and beliefs. Bravo’s original reality television show, The Real Housewives of Orange County portrays such a message to the audience. The Real Housewives of Orange County sends a message to the popular culture audience to adhere to†¦show more content†¦Her priorities include catering to her children, while living an organic fit lifestyle. Vicki Gunvalson is currently in her second marriage, with two children from her previous marriage. She is the dominant for ce in her family and often is described as controlling, and a workaholic. Jeana Keough was a former Playmate and an actress in the eighties. She currently works as a successful realtor and is married to a retired baseball player with three children. She constantly battles with raising her children as the primary parent and disciplinarian. Lauri Waring is a former model and multiple divorced single mother now living in a townhouse with her three children. She struggles to adapt to a less extravagant life, and begins to work for Gunvalson’s insurance company in order to make ends meet; until she recently met her Prince Charming and adapted back to the lifestyle she once knew. Jo De La Rosa is the youngest of the cast mates, who worked in the title insurance until she met Slade Smiley. Her monetary needs were met living with Smiley on the condition that he wanted her to become a conventional stay at home wife and mother. De La Rosa had trouble adjusting to the role because she wanted to pursue a career in music as well. Tamra Barney proclaims to be the â€Å"most attractive housewife† while having three kids with her husband as well as a twenty-three year old son from her previous marriage. Once the economy worsens she is forced to go back to work whileShow MoreRelatedThe Impact of Reality Tv on the Teenagers1732 Words   |  7 PagesThe Impact Of Reality TV on the Teenagers in Mumbai Nimish Satpute St. Andrews College Instructors : Prof. Meenakshi Kamat : Prof. Jenny Benoy Abstract Reality-based television programming has become a dominant force in television over the past seven years and a staple of most networks’ primetime lineups. This relatively quick change in the television landscape and the sudden increase in viewers’ consumption of reality televisionRead MoreTelevision And Its Influence On Our Culture985 Words   |  4 Pagesbecome a large part of our lives after the early 1950s. During this time, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion. Its purpose was originally to influence the population and that is still apparent today; Whether that continues to be it purpose is debatable. Television as legacy media has many negative influences on our culture. This is most apparent in younger generations than any other. The scope of this paper will be identifying the negative affects popular culture televisionRead MoreDiscuss The Article ‘Reinforcing The Myth: Constructing1546 Words   |  7 PagesAustralian identity in â€Å"reality TV† ’. The main contention in Price Erma’s article ‘ Reinforcing the myth: Constructing Australian identity in â€Å"reality TV† ’ which published online on May 2010, is to portray the myth of Australian identity shows in TV that there is a balance to measure how much is true, how much is false. Erma leads the reader to understand that the myth is against ‘reality TV’ because there always has tension between ideas of credibility and performance even TV shows are based on ‘real’Read MoreThe Effects Of Reality Television In Our Society Can Be1509 Words   |  7 Pages The effects of reality television in our society can be seen within the people and even within the government. Reality TV has affected our society in some drastic ways. Reality television started off by showing families supporting each other and being loving, this no longer the case in the year 2017. Reality TV is now promoting acts of aggression, twisting the society s mora ls, and values. This genre of television has greatly influenced some preposterous behaviors within teenage viewers and undoubtedlyRead MoreThe Impact Of Television On Our Future Generations1345 Words   |  6 PagesFuture Generations â€Å"People are sheep. TV is the shepherd.† (Jess C. Scott, Literary Heroin) This quote has more than one truth to it. In today’s society, we rely on television for entertainment, whether that be good or bad. Television acts as a positive as well as a negative influence. According to Statistic Brain, the average person spends approximately 9 years watching TV in their lifetime. In addition, the average youth spends 900 hours per year watching TV. Following these strong statistics, IRead MoreThe Reality Of Television Has On Store For Me Tonight1547 Words   |  7 PagesIt is Monday morning and I am already thinking about what reality television has in store for me tonight. There are so many shows to choose from at prime time, so instead of making a hard decision, I simply plan to watch them all. From Basketball Wives and Black Ink Crew to Love and Hip-hop and The Real Housewives of Atlanta, my Monday night seems to be very eventful. It is something about the constant drama that keeps my glued to the TV screen – the constant shouting and fussing, not to mentionRead MoreThe Reality Of Television Shows Influences The Politics And The Culture Essay1446 Words   |  6 PagesReality television shows are the usual genre of programs in the 21st century. These programs show the reality of what happens in real life. They are not like movies or series that are being acted or are done based on actual stories. The characters shown in these shows are the real people who act. Keeping up with Kardashians, Love and hip-hop, and the Police women of Cincinnati are some of the recent reality TV shows that are aired on American TV channels. Keeping up with the Kardashians is aboutRead MoreMass Media1036 Words   |  5 Pagesdecades or so, the media and its influence on the societies, has grown exponentially with the advance of technology. First there was the telegraph and the post offices, then the radio, the newspaper, magazines, television and now the int ernet and the new media including palmtops, cell phones etc. There are positive and negative influences of mass media, which we must understand as a responsible person of a society. Before discussing the influence of mass media on society it is imperative to explain theRead MoreThe Television Show Gossip Girl1576 Words   |  7 PagesGossip Girl. The entire time I watch the episode I was constantly marking down technical events. Technical events affect out perception of reality. It might sound strange, but by using technical events the production companies are tricking our brains to believe that life happens in small moments. As an observer we only witness snippets of the full picture, our reality becomes smaller, shrunk down by the absence of real time. It tricks the viewer into focussing only on the pretty picture the director andRead MoreReality Tv Affects Young Women930 Words   |  4 Pagesin 2011 entitled â€Å"Real to Me: Girls and Reality TV† in which they gave many statistics to support the way in which reality TV affects young women. In this study, they collected data from over 1,100 girls around the country and what they found was astonishing . Many of the girls, 50 percent of them to be exact, believed that real-life reality shows are â€Å"mainly real and unscripted† (Girl Scouts Institute 1). Their study showed that girls who consumed reality TV are more likely to be focused on their

Supporting Actor Never The Star. Napoleon Bonaparte Once

Supporting Actor Never The Star Napoleon Bonaparte once said, â€Å"Women are nothing but machines for producing children† (Goad 2013). In society, especially ancient Greek time, women are seen as the lesser counterpart to men. They are subject made only to be arm candy to men, and to keep the home tidy while caring for the family. Women are supposed to be submissive to men knowing they must obey every command, but men are allowed to roam free doing whatever they please. Times have changed since the ancient days, yet still, like the Greeks, men believe women should have no rights at all. However, some women have found their voice, no longer hiding in fear, or standing in their man’s shadows. Women are being bold, yet that is only some. The†¦show more content†¦Antigone was set on burying her brother, but for Ismene, even though Polyneices was her blood brother, she still could not step outside her womanly role proclaiming, â€Å"Since force constrains me,/ tha t I shall yield in this to the authorities./ Extravagant action is not sensible† (76-78). Her fear of men kept her from giving her own family member a burial and leaving her only living relative out to dry as she ventured to what would be the start to her own death. When trying her best to tell her sister not to go she mentions, â€Å"I will not put dishonor on them, but/ to act in defiance of the citizenry,/ my nature does not give me means for that† (90-93). Not only did she not want to make strife with men, but also go against her city. Greeks were very much loyal to their individual city states, and everyone worked together to preserve their individual rights within that city state. Ismene knew that Antigone and her were no longer the royal family, and to keep both them safe they must obey the city. Their own brother went against the city, and he, now, laid naked in the sun for the birds to pick at. Ismene, finally, comes to her senses no longer acting in silence, b ut questioning Creon, â€Å"Will you kill your son’s wife to be?† (623). This was her last attempt at saving her sister’s life, yet it was too late Creon’s mind was made up. Her fear was in the right place, but it held her back fromShow MoreRelatedLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 PagesJuanita mentions seeing a sign back in the parking lot: Warning, Giardia has been found in many streams in the area. Sorry, but we are out of sterilization tablets. Giardia is a microorganism that makes you sick, she says. You and Emilio have never heard of it. Emilio says hes willing to bet that boiling the water will kill the critters. Besides, he says, our stream might not have Giardia. Ill take the first drink. Juanita winces. No, don’t do that, she says. Lets just pack up and

Bathsheba and Oak are both very significant characters in the book Essay Example For Students

Bathsheba and Oak are both very significant characters in the book Essay Bathsheba and Oak are both very significant characters in the book. The books story constantly revolves around Bathsheba and in my opinion she is the main character in the book. This young, pretty lady ends up changing the lives of three men forever. Her charms, vanity and the way in which she entraps men with her beauty leaves one man dead and one hanged for murder. Throughout the book she is constantly undecided yet I feel that Oak always seems to play the leading male role in her life even after she marries Troy. Although she does not like Oak the moment she sees him. When the two characters first meet in the book Gabriel sees a carriage loaded with furniture on top of the hill, Bathsheba is sitting on top of it. He becomes interested in the lady sitting on top of the hill and as the carriage is about to leave he followed the vehicle to the turnpike gate some way beyond the bottom of the hill, where the object of his contemplation now halted for the payment of the toll. Oak is obviously interested in the lady but the scene unfolds as Bathsheba decides not to pay the turnpike keeper the two pence that he wants. Gabriel approaches and gives the keeper the money. Let the young woman pass  Bathsheba is neither pleased nor dismissive of Oak yet because of him she has lost her point. She thinks nothing of it apart from being a little disgruntled and carries but Gabriel talks to the gatekeeper who mentions her vanity. This casual meeting introduces the two characters to each other for the first time, little does Bathsheba know that this seemingly insignificant farmer will play such a great role in her life. A short while after the event Gabriel catches a glimpse of Bathsheba from a birds eye view, this is the moment when Gabriel decides that there is something about Bathsheba that he longs for.  Having for some time known the want of a satisfactory form to fill an increasing void within him, his position moreover affording the widest scope for his fancy, he painted her a beauty.  Oak sees Bathsheba riding through his plantation and he sees her lying back on her horse without a sidesaddle riding around and revealing herself in a way that she would not had anybody been around. She does not know he is watching but she covers herself and carries on, Oak knows that he is in love. When she rides back he returns the hat and mentions that he saw her earlier, at this moment she blushes because she realises that he had seen her. Gabriel was so in love with her that he waited for her to come past the hedge every day, he had reached a peak of existence he never could have anticipated a short ti me before. Gabriel decides to marry Bathsheba but he is deceived by Bathshebas aunt into thinking Bathsheba has many sweethearts already. Bathsheba runs after him to say that this is untrue. He assumes that she wants to marry him and says that he is doing all right in life and that she could have a piano and so on. Bathsheba is excited but she would hate to be thought mens property in that way, she likes the idea of marriage but she does not like the prospect of all the responsibility afterwards, she is not impressed by Gabriels property and she is definitely unimpressed by the thought of having a little piano. Bathsheba needs taming. .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 , .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .postImageUrl , .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 , .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560:hover , .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560:visited , .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560:active { border:0!important; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560:active , .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560 .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf1adf9f4b49a62a2df6949e6caddc560:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Animal Rights Analysis EssayGabriel is devastated when he hears that Bathsheba is leaving but she returns. There are many small meetings that they have but the important event is when after Gabriels disaster with the sheep he comes to her farm in need of help, he wants her to employ him as a shepherd because nobody else will.  Later on in the book after Boldwood is introduced Gabriel is shearing sheep when Boldwood comes to see Bathsheba to propose to her. When he sees what is going something ticks in his mind and he snips the sheep to divert Bathsheba and Boldwoods attention. After Oak hears that Boldwood has proposed to Bathsheba she asks him to contradict all rumours about her marriage that are occurring between the workers, he refuses. He says that he will give her his point of view about her actions. Bathsheba refuses to her it yet after thinking about it, changes her mind. Gabriel rebukes her and she resolves to serious measures.  I cannot allow any man to to criticize my private conduct! Nor will I for a minute. So youll please leave the farm at the end of the week!  No sooner has Bathsheba dismissed Oak than she needs him again. The sheep are in trouble and will die unless Oak comes to save them. Bathsheba is reluctant to let Oak return yet the lives of her sheep are at stake. She tells Joe to get Gabriel to come immediately yet Oak refuses because Bathsheba is not being polite. He knows that it is a desperate situation yet he is witty and toys with her. Eventually Gabriel saves the sheep and the incident is resolved with Bathsheba letting him stay at the farm again. This is the part of the book where Oak finds out that Bathsheba relies on him because in fact she does not know too much about running a farm, he is once again re assured that maybe he will be able to have a relationship with her. When Troy comes into play Oak yet again warns Bathsheba against the man but Bathsheba is already in love and takes no notice to Gabriels concerns. After Gabriel pursues Bathsheba whilst she is on her way to Bath he is comforted by the fact that she is going to Bath to refuse Troy nevertheless Bathsheba returns from Bath and marries Troy. Oak sees the weakness of Bathshebas relationship with Troy and realises how incompetent at running the farm Troy is. Troy ends up controlling most aspects of the farm and ignoring Bathshebas wishes even though he is uncertain of what he is doing. Bathsheba married Troy between jealousy and distraction and it is clear that she is discontent with him as a husband. With a storm brewing and the men drunk Oak covers the hayricks with Bathsheba helping him but when lightning strikes they are in the barn, together as they should be. She is upset at the aspect of further married life with Troy yet she knows that Gabriel Oak will always love her, be there for her, and she thanks him for his devotion.

Much Ado About Nothing Essays (1519 words) - English-language Films

Much Ado About Nothing Written between 1598 and 1600 at the peak of Shakespeare's skill in writing comedic work, Much Ado About Nothing is one of Shakespeare's wittiest works. In this comedy, Shakespeare's drama satirizes love and human courtliness between two couples who take very different paths to reach the same goal: making the connection between inward and outward beauty. Much Ado About Nothing shows different ways of how people are attracted to one another, and how their realization and definitions of "love" relate to their perceptions of inward and outward beauty. The play is set in Messina, Italy, a small province facing the Straits of Messina, in northeastern Sicily, at the estate of the governor of Messina, Leonato. Don Pedro, Prince of Arragon, Don John, his brother, Borachio his servant, Bene*censored*, a young lord, and Claudio his best friend are all returning from war, and have been invited to stay with Leonato for a month. Shakespeare's antagonist Don John, bears much resemblance to Don John of Austria, the illegitimate son of Charles V, half-brother to the King of Aragon who defeated the Turks at Lepanto and returned to Messina after his victory in October of 1571 (Richmond 51). Don John of Austria had many of the qualities that Shakespeare's Don John did, he was not on good terms with his brother, and although he tried with much effort to gain status, he was frequently humiliated in attempts to bring himself fame. Shakespeare was known to draw parallels between his characters and actual historical figures, in an attempt to produce a sort abstract history of the times (Richmond 49). Upon returning from war, Claudio saw a young woman named Hero that he had seen before going to fight, and felt a strong attraction to her. Claudio expressed to Bene*censored* his attraction to Hero, Leonato's daughter, and Bene*censored*, with a mouth as loose as oiled hinge immediately told Don Pedro of the attraction. Don Pedro, being much closer to Leonato than any of the other veterans were, told the governor Leonato about Claudio, who in turn informed his daughter Hero of him, all with the lightning speed of gossip. Claudio's attraction to Hero is described by Shakespeare with skill as he puts emphasis on the Claudio-Hero relationship that is forming but at the same time keeps it in the background. Claudio is clearly attracted to Hero's outer beauty and knows nothing of her inner beauty, but after conversing with his friend Bene*censored* and then Don Pedro he decides he will marry Hero. A possible scheme of Claudio can be noted when after describing his attraction to Hero to Bene*censored*, he asks Don Pedro, "Hath Leonato any son, my lord?" Don Pedro replies that Hero is "his only heir."(I.i.262) An interpretation of this might be that Claudio's attraction to Hero was rooted in a pursuance of the love of Hero's wealth, masked by her outward beauty.(Brown 79) At this point the drama takes a twist and a sub-plot is formed as Don Pedro talks to Claudio about Hero and assures him that he will have Hero. Don Pedro describes to Claudio his plan of achieving this, he will don a disguise of Claudio and woo her for him. At this the scene closes, and Claudio and Bene*censored* are left to wonder about Don Pedro's intentions. Bene*censored* believes that Don Pedro wants Hero for himself, and Don John and Borrachio agree with his statement. This forces Claudio to act on his instinct and initial attraction to Hero alone and decide to marry Hero. Don John, feeling resentful of his brother is quick to accept his servant Borrachio's plan of deceiving Claudio into thinking that Hero is promiscuous, so that he can shame one of his prestigious brother's followers and prevent Claudio and Hero's marriage. Borrachio's plan included having an amorous encounter with Margaret, Hero's maid, and in the middle of everything announcing Hero's name for everyone who might be in earshot to hear. While Claudio describes his love of Hero, Bene*censored* reveals his attraction to Beatrice to Claudio, Leonato's niece, but at the same time profoundly states a declaration of bachelorism. Beatrice's character is described as a fine example of a woman in Shakespeare's time. She has a biting wit, and in her "high intellect and high animal spirits meet" (Jameson 349) Bene*censored* and Beatrice quarrel in a skirmish of wits which is merely a facade of their underlying attraction to each other, and an ongoing struggle of recognizing their love. Bene*censored* and Beatrice's attraction and pre-existing relationship is evident, and their battle of

The Temper Tantrums Children And Young People Essay Essay Example

The Temper Tantrums Children And Young People Essay Essay Example The Temper Tantrums Children And Young People Essay Essay The Temper Tantrums Children And Young People Essay Essay Mothering is the interaction manner of female parent with her kids. A female parent should be patient and good hearer. She should maintain herself cool in negative fortunes. She should her kid at every measure. She should be responsible for demands and properties of her kid. She should take involvement in the activities of her kid. It will convey positive alterations in her kid ( Freud, 1946 ) . Fathering is a large duty. Father is a function theoretical account for his kid. Child observes the behaviour of his male parent and imitates it. He has to take the duty of his kid s every demand like nutrient, shelter, vesture and instruction. He should affection and love towards his kid. Small words of grasp and encouragement can develop the assurance of kid ( Runkel, 2008 ) . 1. Temper fits Temper fits are really ambitious. If a yearling is going fit so seek to deviate his attending. Try to prosecute him in another activity and give him picks. A day-to-day everyday agenda can be established with regular feeding, sleeping and drama times. It will ensue a happy and developed behaviour. 2. Potty preparation Children might oppose enamored preparation. But female parent should non implement him enamored sitting but she should maintain herself unagitated. Sleep affects enamored preparation session. Mother should take attention about his slumber. She should put their timing by bound nutrient and imbibe 2 hours before bed.She should promote for a enamored trip before slumber. Bullying is violent behavior that can be verbal or physical. Boys show strong-arming behavior largely by physical actions like forcing, kicking or hitting. While girls engage in verbal intimidation. Parents can assist their striplings cover with the common issue of strong-arming by following these guidelines: Parent should understand the state of affairs and earnestness of intimidation. Parents must acknowledge initial behaviour that led to strong-arming. Parents should utilize suited schemes harmonizing to the nature of kid. Parent should educate their kid about strong-arming that is non accepted behaviour and they must avoid it. Parent should learn their kids to get by emphasis. Physical exercising, disbursement clip in playing or disbursement clip in the company of nature can get by emphasis ( Campbell, 2005 ) . In limited caretaking parents are primary caretaker and expansive parents have limited connexion with their expansive kids. Grandparents can non affect in the instruction of their grandchildren. They can non look into their school records. But in nonvoluntary caretaking expansive parenting, expansive parents are primary attention taker. They have full-time detention over them and responsible for their every affair. Grandparents have positive impacts on the life of grandparents. They change their life manner and built up positive character of their grandchildren. Grandchildren become cognizant of covering with different fortunes of life without parents. They behave as responsible individual and go more disciplined. They did non experience entirely but being loved and experience satisfied. Grandparents told them past narratives and about their traditions and cultural values and they become cognizant of cultural values. Due to positive attitude towards life, they take involvement in surveies and demo good public presentation in surveies. Due to these positive impacts of grandparents on the life of grandchildren, parent should include them to act upon their kid s life. National Extension Parent Education Model provides research based information about parenting. It improves rearing accomplishments. It assists parents to care themselves foremost. By caring themselves, their stress degree will diminish which will diminish spread between parent. And close relationship brings assurance in kid. It enables the parents to understand the behaviour of their kids by observation. Parents understand the demands of their kids by their behavioural cues. It enables the parents to steer and train their kids efficaciously. Consistency in counsel drama important function in the development of kid. It makes the parents to foster their kid which brings positive results and increase their degree of competency. It patterns the parents to actuate their kids which provides chances to pupils to larn more and more. And they develop intellectually and go antiphonal. Poverty refers to economic adversities and run intoing the basic demands of life. It impacts both parents and kids. It resists parents to go good parents. It increases the stress degree of parents which result into bad attitude towards kids. It may take to child maltreatment. It effects physical wellness of kids due to deficient money. When they do non run into their basic demands, they effects psychologically and demo mental and behavioural jobs. It lowers down the educational results of kids. Education of kid is combined duty of parents and kids. Parents can back up their kids in the schoolroom in many ways. They meet the instructors face-to-face on regular footing to about the advancement of their kid. They should seek their degree best to go to school s field trips and concerts. It send a message that they take attention about the instruction of their kid. There are following two outside resources to back up your household: Parents should move as instructor. They should steer their household members. It is their duty to supply medical services to their household. Divorce is a drab determination. It breaks down a household bond and effects the kids both psychologically and emotionally. Parental loss is major consequence. Child feels alienated and become victim of anxiousness and depression. He has to confront many jobs in school. He is teased by his equal group. Furthermore, he has to confront fiscal jobs sometimes. Parents can meet move the negativeness and back up their kids in following manner: societal support by parents can assist them to follow positive attitude towards life. Parents have to do their kids to confront multiple state of affairss in school and how to get by with them. Take a calendar and put your clip agenda for whole twenty-four hours forenoon to dark. Avoid wastage of clip from forenoon to eventide. Then follow your clip tabular array. It will heighten the lives of their kids. Parents should themselves in kid s school maps like field trips and concert. As, it send a message that they take attention about their kids. Overweight see organic structure weight with regard to personify composing or tallness. Overweight kids have opportunities of sever fleshiness in maturity. Overweight leads to serious physiological wellness jobs. It affects mental development of kids and do psychological jobs like anxiousness. It involves high hazard of asthma, cardiovascular diseases like high blood force per unit area and high cholesterin. It leads to musculoskeletal and fatty liver upset. It causes orthopaedic jobs and agitation during slumber. Fat accretion resists insulin production and cause diabetes. Parents can assist their kids in following ways: They should do their kids to follow healthy life manner by altering their eating wonts. They should develop their modus operandi with maximal physical activities to fire their Calories. It may include athleticss or merely playing. They should allow them avoid saccharides and debris nutrient. They should allow them eat fresh fruits and vegetable alternatively of jammed juices. Physical disable kids are really sensitive. It is great undertaking for parent to manage them positively. Parents can assist their kid in different Fieldss of life in many ways. Parents should follow positive attitude towards their kids. They should take them as load. It will increase their hurting and agonies. They should seek to understand their jobs and assist them in happening solution of these jobs. Like other kids, pick devising is a great and hard undertaking for them. Parents should steer and assist them in this concern. They should allow them emotional support in schoolroom activities. They should promote them. It will convey assurance and positive acquisition results. They should learn the equal group their disable kid to offer their assist their aid respectfully and may non damage their self-respect socially. They should measure their kids to seek originative ways to affect physical disable kid to different drama activities. For illustration, it is easy for disable kid to play with blocks on a tabular array with his equal group, sitting on his wheel chair. Adopted parents may confront many frights and natural insecurities after following a kid. Adopted kid besides feels disaffection and anxiousness due to loss of their biological parents. Some kids feel wonder about their familial history, which will make confusion and misgiving towards their parents. It will take down their degree of self-esteem. Adopted parents can assist them in their grudges for their separation from their biological parents. They should state him about his familial history and assist him to happen their individuality. It will develop trust on adoptive parents and set up good relationship and raise their degree of self-pride. Some of this information has been taken from Caught in the center: Protecting the kids of high-conflict divorce. Because it manages the detention instance of contested kid and evaluate parent kid relationship and parenting accomplishments efficaciously. There is assortment of child attention plan due to different school of idea. There are many positive effects of s quality child care plan. High quality child care plans in childhood lead to academic success in following life. While hapless parent s kid can non vie them in academic public presentation. By effectual schemes, kids show positive behavioural alteration. It besides leads to intellectual development a kid. You can convert parents that your plan is ideal childcare plan by informing them about your high aim for rational and behavioural development of a kid, effectual programs to accomplish your aims, and its positive effects. Parents frequently wish that a rearing manual came with their kids. A it suggests that they are member of their kid s schoolroom. An appropriate parenting theoretical account which is suited for every societal category, race and cultural group convey to parents that your schoolroom is tolerant, supportive and promoting to all households.

Water and Its Importance in Broward Countys Environment Term Paper

Water and Its Importance in Broward Countys Environment - Term Paper Example Pollutants taken by this run-off can be released into pathways, ponds, and other systems water with negative ecological effects. In Broward Nation, a major resource of stormwater contamination is scenery run-off. The plant foods, weed killers, and bug sprays we use to keep our lawns looking their best can actually end up doing more damage than good. When it downpours, these pollutants along with other contaminants like fuel and oil can run off from our qualities and into our local storage areas, pathways, and larger systems water like the Everglades and Seaside Ocean. Flower foods, in particular, can cause some serious issues for our water resources. Flower foods promote the development of plankton and marine fresh mushrooms because they contain high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, two nutritional values that encourage plant development. The out of control development of plankton and unwanted marine vegetation (like hydrilla and cattails) and Water hyacinth damages our ocean often . Once fertilizers get into our waterways, they can cause the rapid development of plankton. Algal biomass atmosphere the water and blocks sunshine, causing stress to marine vegetation. When that vegetation passes away, it sinks to the bottom and is decomposed by parasites. As the parasites feed off the vegetation, it reduces oxygen from the water that seafood and other creatures need to live, and can outcome in large seafood destroys. Plant biomass can also cram pathways, reducing discharge. This often results in the need for chemical treatment, which is not only costly but also plays a role in the contamination of our water.   Excess fertilizers in our water can also cause changes in established surroundings. For instance, cattails can grow so heavy that they press out all local vegetation, allowing exotic and obtrusive vegetation to take hold. This can limit looking by creatures and eventually cause local varieties to seek other places for the environment.

Business research and writing Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Business and writing - Research Paper Example Effective Corporate Social Responsibility is also an important asset to acquiring critical stakeholder resources. Consequently, firms who have greater and easier access to required resources are expected to be better positioned to exploit the cost structure benefits of organizational efficiency and thus more likely to gain a performance advantage over their respective competitors. This examination should assist CEO, manager and senior firm officers strategize for our organization in this age of social responsiveness. Most prominently, the arguments and results garnered here lend support for the organizational benefit of effective CSR. It outlines a path from ethical and social performance to financial performance superiority, and demonstrates that firm may use CSR and more specifically the intangible Corporate Social Reputation that it promotes, as a substantive element in deriving a workplace efficiency and subsequent competitive advantage. Scenario No. 7 Introduction Organizations today face increasingly multifaceted, and often competing, motives and incentives in their decision making. More and more people, including consumers and investors, feel that corporations owe something to their worker and the communities in which they operative which may entail sacrificing some profit at times. Organization’s ethically and socially responsible practices, commonly referred as corporate social responsibilities (CSR), have been shown to be advantageous. Furthermore, research has also claimed that being more ethical and socially responsible in business increases efficiency in the workplace. The Chief Executive Officer of the company has asked the author to research above claims. Therefore, the purpose of this report is to review available literature and recommend CSR policies to assist managers and senior firm officers strategize for organization. Corporate Reputation An organization can improve corporate reputation at the same time while working toward establish ing CSR, whether through incorporating higher human rights standards or by addressing environmental connections in the work ethic (Gaines-Ross, 2007; Speth & Haas, 2006). Reebok found that by incorporating internationally recognized human rights standards into its business practice it achieved improved worker morale, a better working environment, and higher-quality products (Holliday et al., 2002, p. 111). Manufacturing industries adopting sustainable measures are collaborating with institutions that support sustainable guidelines and are also improving and protecting their corporate reputations (Gaines-Ross, 2007; Grayson & Hodges, 2004; Holliday et al., 2002). According to Russell (2006), organizations that save money by cutting corners at the cost to the planet will be recognized as poor performers, which will ultimately affect the organization as incidents of environmental disaster will continue to linger in the minds of consumers. For example, in September 2006, the Dutch compa ny, Trafigura Beheer, which unloaded toxic sludge on the coast of Africa, killing 7 and making 50,000 people ill, has experienced the backlash from consumers for its poor decision (Gore, 2006; Russell, 2006). Trafigura Beheer focused on the financial cost associated with disposing of the toxic waste product and chose an easier method (Gore, 2006). The mistake made to ship the waste to Abidjan instead of processing it ethically has desecrated the company's

Arguments For and Against Euthanasia

Arguments For and Against Euthanasia Euthanasia: Whose decision is it I. Introduction In a 1988 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association, an article titled Its Over Debbie describes how an anonymous doctor administers a fatal dose of morphine to a woman dying of ovarian cancer (Anonymous, 1988). In a 1989 issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, ten doctors associated with the nations leading hospitals and medical schools declare their belief that it is not immoral for a physician to assist in the rational suicide of a terminally ill person (Wanzer, et. al., 1989). In 1991, the New England Journal of Medicine published a detailed account written by Dr. Timothy Quill which discussed his decision to help a patient suffering from leukemia commit suicide (Quill, 1991). In 1990, Dr. Jack Kervorkian uses his suicide machine to help a woman suffering from Alzheimers disease, one Janet Adkins, end her life in the back of a Volkswagen bus (Risen, 1990). Janet was the first of twenty patients who have been aided by Kervorkian in the past three years. He rem ains committed to his practice. In 1991 the Hemlock Society publishes a how-to manual on committing suicide. Entitled Final Exit, it zooms to the top of the national best seller lists and stays there for several weeks (Altman, 1991). Each of these events has served to provoke ever widening media coverage of the issues surrounding euthanasia and physician assisted suicide, and a national debate has arisen around these practices. This debate is not merely limited to attorneys and physicians. Suddenly, these issues and this debate are now a part of life in mainstream America, and many Americans face dilemmas that did not exist in simpler times; dilemmas that many would rather not have to face. II. Review of the Literature a. Euthanasia: The Nature of the Debate It is this sudden change in the way Americans are dealing with death, the nature and scope of the debate about dying, which prompts this analysis of the issues surrounding euthanasia. This debate is largely a debate about what is ethical. Questions the debate attempts to answer include: Is it right to commit suicide? Is it ethical for someone else to help? Is it right to put others to death at their own request or at the request of family members? These questions are important because they help to define our society and our culture. The way people deal with and respond to issues of life, ritual, and death serves to shape the nature of our society. This is why society must attempt to decide what is right; what is ethical conduct for the various actors in our communities when we face death. There are several reasons why this debate has surfaced in the 1980s. Death is nothing new, it has existed for thousands of years. Each culture has developed its own rituals and mechanisms for dealin g with death. These mechanisms serve to provide solace, a sense of continuity, and allow the culture to continue even as the members of the community cannot. However, our own culture has experienced many shattering changes that have altered the nature of dying. Suddenly we are forced to rethink the issue of death and we must decide what types of behavior are ethical when someone is dying. Before we can examine the debate about the ethics of dying, we must examine why the debate exists. Perhaps the main reason that death has changed in western culture has to do with advances in medicine and technology. Many of the diseases that have historically killed people are now no longer a threat to most individuals. Medicine has made a variety of advances in the treatment of diseases such as smallpox, tuberculosis, malaria, pneumonia, polio, influenza, and measles. People now rarely die of such traditional causes. Life expectancy has risen to almost 75 years in the United States. The quality o f life has also changed fundamentally during the past 100 years. Not only does almost everyone in the United States have enough to eat, but people eat higher on the food chain. There is a great deal more meat and animal fat in modern diets. Just these differences alone have changed death significantly. People now develop heart disease, adult onset diabetes, cancers, and AIDS. These types of diseases are more the result of lifestyle than bacteria. With these new diseases, suffering is often more prolonged and treatment is frequently quite painful. Also, as people are living longer, the diseases of the aged have become increasingly prevalent. Many more people now suffer from problems like senile dementia and Alzheimers disease. These diseases ruin the mind while preserving the body, allowing life to continue long after any quality that the life might have is gone. If what we die of has changed, perhaps the way that we die has changed even more. Throughout history, death has been a family affair. People usually died in the home after a short bout with an illness or as the result of an accident. Today, increasingly, death occurs in an institutional setting such as a convalescent home or a hospital, after a variety of technologies are applied in an attempt to prolong the life of the sick person. Often these technologies can be quite effective. People can now live for months and even years attached to a variety of tubes and technol ogies. About 75% of all deaths in 1987 occurred in hospitals and long term care facilities, up from 50% in 1950 . . . The Office of Technology Assessment Task Force estimated in 1988 that 3775 to 6575 persons were dependent on mechanical ventilation and 1,404,500 persons were receiving artificial nutritional support. This growing capability to forestall death has contributed to the increased attention to medical decisions near the end of life. (CEJA, 1992, p. 2229) People realize that the chances of facing the institutionalization of death increase daily, and they feel a profound lack of control. Surveys have consistently indicated that a large majority of people in the United States would like to be allowed to end their lives before incurable and painful diseases finally kill them (CEJA, p. 2229). Because of the changes that have impacted death, with regard to both how and where we die, the debate about how we should be allowed to die has been renewed. This paper will examine the s everal facets of this debate. It will define the terms that are relevant to the debate, examine the legal state of euthanasia today, discuss the ethics of euthanasia by examining arguments made by proponents and opponents of euthanasia, and by applying several Normative Ethical Theories to the issue. Finally, it will explore the power implications that infuse the debate on euthanasia and present arguments in favor of moving toward a care based ethic of dying and away from the current rights based ethic. b. Definitions If we are to effectively understand the debate about the right to die in the United States, it is imperative that a few basic terms be understood. The first and most important term is euthanasia. Originating from the Greek terms eu (happy or good) and thanatos (death), euthanasia means literally happy death or good death. The American Medical Associations Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs defines the term as follows: Euthanasia is commonly defined as the act of bringing about the death of a hopelessly ill and suffering person in a relatively quick and painless way for reasons of mercy. In this report, the term euthanasia will signify the medical administration of a lethal agent to a patient for the purpose of relieving the patients intolerable and incurable suffering. (p. 2230) Other sources have defined euthanasia variously: The act or practice of painlessly putting to death persons suffering from incurable conditions of diseases. (Wolhandler, 1984, p. 363), . . . to refuse un wanted medical treatment or to have ongoing care withdrawn even though the patient will die if treatment is terminated. (Adams, et. al., 1992, p. 2021). Euthanasia is a general term that can actually mean a variety of different things depending upon the context in which it is used. For this reason, a number of supporting terms has become the convention when discussing euthanasia. These terms help to narrow the subject matter and distinguish between different types of euthanasia. The important terms that help to subdivide and classify euthanasia by type are voluntary/involuntary and active/passive. Voluntary euthanasia is a death performed by another with the consent of the person being killed. This consent may be in writing as in the case of a living will or advance directive. Involuntary euthanasia is a death performed by another without the consent of the person being killed. The AMAs Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs makes three distinctions concerning consent and euthanasia: Voluntary euthanasia is euthanasia that is provided to a competent person on his or her informed request. Non-voluntary euthanasia is the provision of euthanasia to an incompetent person according to a surrogates decision. Involuntary euthanasia is euthanasia performed without a c ompetent persons consent.(p. 2230) Wolhandler compares the terms in a different context.Those who condemn euthanasia of both kinds would call the involuntary form murder and the voluntary form a compounded crime of murder and suicide if administered by the physician, and suicide alone if administered by the patient himself. As far as voluntary euthanasia goes, it is impossible to separate it from suicide as a moral category; it is, indeed, a form of suicide. Voluntary euthanasia may involve participation of second parties. (p. 366) The distinction between active and passive euthanasia is not nearly as clear as the previous distinction. Although many authors claim that the difference between the two types cannot be identified or is irrelevant at best, much of the debate on the subject is over this distinction and most of the current legal issues turn on this distinction. While this paper will contend that the difference between the two should not be recognized, it is both useful and important to know where the line is drawn. The AMA, which is strongly opposed to active euthanasia, has seen fit to endorse passive euthanasia in appropriate situations. The Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs makes the distinction as follows: The physician is obligated only to offer sound medical treatment and to refrain from providing treatments that are detrimental, on balance, to the patients well being. When a physician withholds or withdraws a treatment on the request of a patient, he or she has fulfilled the obligation to offer sound treatment to the patient. The obligation to offer treatment does not include an obligation to impose treatment on an unwilling patient. In addition, the physician is not providing a harmful treatment. Withdrawing or withholding is not a treatment, but the foregoing of a treatment. (p. 2231) According to Wolhandler, (p. 367) it is t he nature of the acts performed by the second party that distinguishes between active and passive euthanasia. The courts have held that acts of omission (removal of respiratory assistance, hydration, and feeding tubes) are allowable behavior. Although unplugging a respirator and switching off a dialysis machine are arguably acts of commission, an increasing number of judges and commentators have accepted these acts as permissible passive euthanasia in both voluntary and involuntary settings. Gifford (1993) describes the difference between the two types of euthanasia this way: Passive euthanasia involves allowing a patient to die by removing her from artificial life support systems such as respirators and feeding tubes or simply discontinuing medical treatments necessary to sustain life. Active euthanasia, by contrast, involves positive steps to end the life of a patient, typically by lethal injectiond (p. 1546) The right to passive euthanasia has also been termed the right to die by some authors (Adams, et. al., p. 2021-22). With an understanding of the different types of euthanasia, we can now define some other key terms. It is important to understand how physician assisted suicide differs from euthanasia, and it is also necessary to define the terms advance directive and competence since they are crucial in determining the difference between voluntary and involuntary euthanasia. The term physician assisted suicide is somewhat self-explanatory. It occurs when a physician provides aid to a patient so they can commit suicide. However, it is also necessary to see the difference between this type of action and euthanasia. The AMAs Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs states that Euthanasia and assisted suicide differ in the degree of physician participation. Euthanasia entails a physician performing the immediate life ending action (e.g., administering a lethal injection). Assisted suicide occurs when a physician facilitates a patients death by providing the necessary means and/or information to enable the patient to perform the life-ending act (e.g., the physician provides sleeping pills and information about the lethal dose, while aware that the patient may commit suicide). (p. 2231) It is important to realize that the difference between euthanasia and assisted suicide lies in the behavior of the physician. This difference in behavior has recently become a major legal battleground that will be explored in the following pages. The advance directive has recently become an important new device to aid the terminally ill. Many states have legalized the advance directive, partly in an attempt to avoid dealing with problems associated with active euthanasia, and partly to help ease the burdens on the dying and their families. Singer (1992) provides a good definition of advance directive and explains how it is used. An advance directive is a written document completed by a competent person that aims to guide medical treatment after the person becomes incompetent. There are two types: instruction directives, which focus on the types of life-sustaining treatment that the person would want under various clinical situations, and proxy directives, which focus on who the person would want to make health care decisions if the person were unable to do so. (p. 22) The advance directive is useful because it can theoretically eliminate the need for involuntary euthanasia. It ensures that a voluntary decision is made in advance, even if the individual could not make such a situation at a later date. If everyone made use of the advance directive, there would be no need to debate policy decisions that must be made in the case of an incompetent person on life support. Because advance directives have neither been accepted nor widely used by the general public, many of the problems that could potentially be solved remain. This situation caused right to die groups in both California and Washington to propose ballot initiatives that would legalize active euthanasia (Gifford, p. 1550-51). Although active euthanasia is not legal in any United States jurisdiction, passive euthanasia is generally allowed at the request of a competent individual. Because of this it is critical to understand what constitutes competence. Courts have defined legal competence as the mental ability to make a rational decision, which includes the ability to perceive, appreciate all the relevant facts, and to reach a rational judgement upon such facts. In the euthanasia context, legal competence is the incurable s ability to understand that in requesting active euthanasia he is choosing death over life. Only clear and convincing evidence should suffice for a finding of an incurables competence. (Wolhandler, p. 366-67) c. The Legal State of Euthanasia With a knowledge of the meaningful terms that will be involved, it is important to discuss the legal state of euthanasia in the United States today. As technology has placed more and more people on life sustaining devices in this country, the courts have had to deal with several cases that pertain to euthanasia in a variety of ways. This section of the paper is designed to review those cases briefly and to assess how the rulings in those cases have set the policy for the practice of euthanasia today. The courts first dealt with euthanasia in the Quinlan case in 1976. Karen Ann Quinlan lapsed into a coma after mixing a variety of pills and alcohol at a party. After it became apparent that she would not be revived, her parents went to court to have her respirator removed. The New Jersey Supreme Court ruled that her parents had the right to have the respirator removed and that Karen be allowed to die. Ironically, because her parents did not request removal of feeding and hydration tubes , she survived nine more years curled in a fetal position in a New Jersey rest home (Wolhandler, p. 366). In this case, the New Jersey court effectively sanctioned nonvoluntary passive euthanasia. The next prominent case was decided by the New York Supreme Court in Superintendent of Belchertown State School v. Saikewicz. Here the court found that a competent patient had the right to refuse medical treatment, allowing for a patient to decide in cases of voluntary passive euthanasia (Gifford, p. 1575-76). Later, in Satz v. Perlmutter, a Florida District Court of Appeals came to essentially the same conclusion (Wolhandler, p. 372-73). In Severns v. Wilmington Medical Center, the Delaware Supreme Court gave the husband of a comatose woman the right of guardianship and the authority to remove her respirator or withhold other treatment as he saw fit. In this case the court relied on previous decisions made in Quinlan, Saikewicz, and Satz for its finding (Wolhandler, p. 373). In Thor v. Su perior Court (California), the court granted the request to withhold treatment from a severely depressed quadriplegic only after a psychiatric evaluation determined that the request was based on poor quality of life and not just on severe depression (Pugliese, 1993, p. 1326). The courts have not restricted the right of passive euthanasia to just the terminally ill. Elizabeth Bouvia was a relatively young woman who suffered from severe cerebral palsy and attempted to starve herself to death in a California hospital by requesting the removal of a nasogastric feeding tube. She was denied this request because the hospital feared it would be party to suicide. The California court of appeals ordered the physicians to remove the tube and argued that she had the right to enlist the assistance of others in ending her life (Sprung, 1990, p. 2213). The courts have also found that doctors and hospitals must at least obtain consent from third parties that would have a significant interest in the patients outcome if the patient is incompetent. In the case of Helga Wanglie, a Minnesota court denied a hospital administrator permission to disconnect her respirator against the wishes of her husband (Gifford, p. 1571). In sum, these cases indicate an emerging consensus that courts will generally allow treatment to be withheld from patients who are terminally ill if it is in the best interests of the patient and at the request of patients or family members. It is this emerging consensus that made the U.S. Supreme Courts decision in the Cruzan case so interesting. In the only euthanasia case heard to date by the U.S. Supreme Court, the justices, in a 5-4 decision, allowed to stand the decision made by the Missouri Court of Appeals not to disconnect the life support apparatus from Nancy Cruzan (Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Dept. of Health, 1990). Although the court did find that a right to refuse treatment could be found in the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and did not prohibit the courts from looking in other areas for this right (Adams, et. al., p. 2025), it also upheld the right of the State of Missouri to require . . . clear and convincing evidence that Ms. Cruzan would have desired withdrawal of these treatments. (Newman, 1991, p. 175). In the realm of physician assisted suicide, only two major cases have been decided. In the case against Dr. Timothy Quill that arose because of the publication of his article in the New England Journal of Medicine, the grand jury for the state of New York refused to return an indictment (Bender, 1992, p. 524). In the more publicized case of Dr. Jack Kervorkian, the courts have not yet decided on the constitutionality of the Michigan law that bans physician-assisted suicide. Kervorkian is currently free on bond and continues to aid other patients who wish to commit suicide (Pugliese, p. 1300-05).(1) A brief assessment of the cases described above indicates that the courts have essentially legalized voluntary passive euthanasia, finding justification to refuse or have medical treatment withheld in the constitutional right to privacy, the common law right of self determination, or the more general concept of autonomy (Gifford, p. 1575-78). With regard to involuntary passive euthanasia, the courts are generally supportive of the practice, but they have the right to insist on a more stringent standard of evidence before approving such procedures. The courts have generally employed a balancing test that weighs the patients right to privacy and self-determination against the interest of the state in preserving life. The interests of potential third parties that might desire that the patient continue to live, and the ethical image of the medical profession (Adams, et. al., p. 2022). In cases of assisted suicide, some states have laws against the practice, the AMA forbids it, most juries are refusing to find the actors guilty, and the courts have yet to decide the question. Both voluntary and involuntary active euthanasia remain illegal. d. The Debate About Euthanasia The movement to legalize active euthanasia has existed for quite some time. Initially popularized in Britain during the 19th century, it gained some adherents in the United States during the 1920s. It was the Nazi program of active euthanasia in the 1930s and 4os that cast a pall of disrepute over the practice that remains today. The revival of this movement today can largely be attributed to the onset of the issues discussed at the beginning of this paper, and to the efforts of the Hemlock Society, a group of individuals that actively promotes the right to dignified death. The Hemlock Society recently promoted ballot initiatives in both Washington and California that would have legalized active euthanasia in those states (Gifford, 1993). This revival of the right to die movement has led to hotly contested debate about the practices of active euthanasia and physician assisted suicide. This paper will attempt to encapsulate this debate by presenting the arguments made by both opponents and supporters of these procedures. Since arguments made by both sides are used in cases of euthanasia and assisted suicide, the generic term euthanasia is used for simplicity to suggest the concept of aided death unless otherwise indicated. Those opposed to euthanasia and assisted suicide present a variety of arguments in support of a ban. e. The Case Against Euthanasia Euthanasia destroys societal respect for life. By becoming commonplace and used in medical practice along with more traditional methods of healing, society becomes desensitized toward death to the point where life is no longer valuable. This attitude serves to degrade humanity and leads to a variety of social ills. In a society that devalues life, people have no compunctions about committing violent crimes and murdering others. The overall quality of life becomes seriously undermined and society as a whole deteriorates (Doerflinger, 1989, p. 16-19, Koop, 1989, p. 2-3). Once euthanasia becomes legal, opponents contend, the potential for abuse at the hands of caregivers vastly increases. Closely related to this argument is the argument that those who enjoy the exercise of power over others might become intoxicated with it and actually come to enjoy killing. One step down the path toward euthanasia simply makes it that much easier in the future to take further steps. This argument is al so referred to as the wedge theory or the slippery slope. One of the most outspoken opponents of euthanasia, University of Michigan professor of law Yale Kamisar, has articulated a three pronged attack that utilizes the wedge theory, the risk of abuse, and the risk of mistake. The proponents of the wedge theory argue that Once society accepts that life can be terminated because of its diminished quality, there is no rational way to limit euthanasia and prevent its abuse. According to this theory, voluntary euthanasia is just the thin edge of a wedge that, once in place, will be driven deeply into our society. Kamisar concludes that legalized voluntary euthanasia inevitably would lead to legalized involuntary euthanasia because it is impossible to draw a rational distinction between those who seek to die because they are a burden to themselves and those whom society seeks to kill because they are a burden to others.(2) (Wolhandler, p. 377) Many who raise the wedge or slippery slope a rgument use the Nazi experience with euthanasia as an empirical example of this process in action. They argue that a public policy of murder inexorably follows from an initial, limited step, namely the adoption of a carefully defined euthanasia program, and that a program designed to get rid of those with lives unworthy of life quickly degenerated into the holocaust (Newman, p. 167). What follows is a description of the Nazi euthanasia program excerpted from Liftons (1986) book: National Socialist euthanasia or mercy death was a program of killing persons with unworthy lives. These persons were not moribund, and their families, with the rarest exceptions, wanted them to live. It was not a good death, as the word denotes, but a systematic program of killing without any mercy whatsoever . . . The program, referred to in the National Socialist bureaucracy as T4, was not based on any law, but was initiated by a secret order traceable to Hitler and his chief physician, Karl Brandt . Ment al hospitals were required to report all chronic schizophrenics, manic-depressives, mental defectives, epileptics, and later, debilitated old persons. A separate division, the Public Transport division for the Sick, took care of the collection and transport of such patients to institutions where they were put to death . Relatives received false death certificates and even letters of condolence . . . It is estimated that during two years of this program, ninety thousand persons went to their deaths. While this description of the Nazi euthanasia program is indeed chilling, it provides within it a devastating attack against using it as justification for the slippery slope argument. Proponents of euthanasia in the United States point out that the Nazi program was not one of euthanasia, but a program of mass murder disguised as euthanasia. Gifford (p. 1570) sums up the response of several authors by stating that The Nazis hid their racist, eugenic agenda behind the term euthanasia, termi nating in secret the lives of undesirables. It must never be forgotten that the Nazi euthanasia program was never euthanasia at all. That the Nazis co-opted the term for their own purposes should not obscure the fact that their motive was, from the very beginning, entirely different from that of todays euthanasia proponents. The current euthanasia movement is anything but covert. The Hemlock Society and other supporters of the right to receive aid in dying have spent millions of dollars to publicize their efforts. In this context, death is presented as a positive alternative to pain and suffering, not a utilitarian tool. Proponents of euthanasia also attempt to refute the slippery slope argument in a variety of other ways. They contend that the current mechanisms used by the courts could easily prevent any slide toward involuntary euthanasia,(3) that the current practice of passive euthanasia proves that the slope isnt all that slippery since we havent witnessed any massive killing programs, and that the example of how forced sterilization in the U.S. has diminished rather than increased, provides a more appropriate example to rely on. Even Callahan (1989), a vocal opponent of active euthanasia, admits that the Nazi experience is not particularly applicable to the U.S. experience and that Lives are not b eing shortened. They are steadily being lengthened, and particularly for those who are the most powerless: sick children and the very old, the mentally and mentally retarded, the disabled and the demented (p. 4). Newman (1991) also attacks the concept of the slippery slope itself. Arguing that just pointing out that one type of action could conceivably lead to another constitutes a very unpersuasive argument and that for the premise to hold true, it must be shown that pressure to allow further steps will be so strong that these steps will actually occur. He also reminds us that such arguments are frequently abused in legal and social policy debate (p. 169). Besides Kamisar, the risk of abuse argument has also been put forth by a host of other authors who variously claim that assisted suicides might result in flagrant murders that may be perpetrated by deliberately forcing or coercing self-destruction and that others may advance personal motives by aiding in suicide (Adams, et. al., p. 2031); that when the entire medical profession is involved in euthanasia, including the poorly trained, the insensitive, the less skilled, there becomes the danger that physicians might not do whatever they can to avoid euthanasia if possible (Newman, p. 177); and that some people who enjoy the exercise of power over others might become addicted to the process (Doerflinger, p. 19). It is this fear of abuse that leads the AMAs Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs to argue that the ban on active euthanasia is a bright line distinction that deters this type of potential abuse. They state: Allowing physicians to perform euthanasia for a limited group of patients who may truly benefit from it will present difficult line-drawing problems for medicine and society. In specific cases it may be hard to distinguish which cases fit the criteria established for euthanasia. For example, if the existence of unbearable pain and suffering was a criterion for euthanasia, the definition of unbea rable pain and suffering could be subject to different interpretations, which might lead to abuse of the process in the case of certain practitioners. (CEJA, p. 2232). Proponents of euthanasia argue that the risk of abuse, while certainly present, is not really much of a threat. This is true first, because laws against homicide are severe enough to provide a strong deterrent (Newman, p. 178); second, because a clear set of guidelines prescribing when active euthanasia is allowed will prevent confusion (Adams, et. al., Gifford); third, because we already risk the practice of abuse by allowing passive euthanasia, and such abuse has not occurred (Newman, p. 178); and finally, that the current state of illegality promotes an absence of discussion and actually encourages the practice of clandestine euthanasia (Newman, p. 177). As Gifford (p. 1572) succinctly puts it, what slope could be more slippery than one with no guardrails whatsoever? Additionally, the balancing tests already in place by the legal system should serve to eliminate this problem. Adams, et. al., (p. 2034) explain: For example, some opponents of physician-assisted suicide argue that pe rmitting some assisted suicides may lead to the killing of patients who want to live. This slippery slope argument expresses a utilitarian rationale for prohibiting suicide assistance. Others argue that suicide and the assistance of suicide is intrinsically evil, and that sanctioning them will damage the fabric of social morality. These and other utilitarian and moral considerations are encompassed within the states interest in preserving the sanctity of all life and affect its weight in the balance against the patients interest in self-determination. Opponents of euthanasia contend that there is no guarantee that euthanasia will be strictly voluntary. The potential for sub Arguments For and Against Euthanasia Arguments For and Against Euthanasia Euthanasia: Whose decision is it I. Introduction In a 1988 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association, an article titled Its Over Debbie describes how an anonymous doctor administers a fatal dose of morphine to a woman dying of ovarian cancer (Anonymous, 1988). In a 1989 issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, ten doctors associated with the nations leading hospitals and medical schools declare their belief that it is not immoral for a physician to assist in the rational suicide of a terminally ill person (Wanzer, et. al., 1989). In 1991, the New England Journal of Medicine published a detailed account written by Dr. Timothy Quill which discussed his decision to help a patient suffering from leukemia commit suicide (Quill, 1991). In 1990, Dr. Jack Kervorkian uses his suicide machine to help a woman suffering from Alzheimers disease, one Janet Adkins, end her life in the back of a Volkswagen bus (Risen, 1990). Janet was the first of twenty patients who have been aided by Kervorkian in the past three years. He rem ains committed to his practice. In 1991 the Hemlock Society publishes a how-to manual on committing suicide. Entitled Final Exit, it zooms to the top of the national best seller lists and stays there for several weeks (Altman, 1991). Each of these events has served to provoke ever widening media coverage of the issues surrounding euthanasia and physician assisted suicide, and a national debate has arisen around these practices. This debate is not merely limited to attorneys and physicians. Suddenly, these issues and this debate are now a part of life in mainstream America, and many Americans face dilemmas that did not exist in simpler times; dilemmas that many would rather not have to face. II. Review of the Literature a. Euthanasia: The Nature of the Debate It is this sudden change in the way Americans are dealing with death, the nature and scope of the debate about dying, which prompts this analysis of the issues surrounding euthanasia. This debate is largely a debate about what is ethical. Questions the debate attempts to answer include: Is it right to commit suicide? Is it ethical for someone else to help? Is it right to put others to death at their own request or at the request of family members? These questions are important because they help to define our society and our culture. The way people deal with and respond to issues of life, ritual, and death serves to shape the nature of our society. This is why society must attempt to decide what is right; what is ethical conduct for the various actors in our communities when we face death. There are several reasons why this debate has surfaced in the 1980s. Death is nothing new, it has existed for thousands of years. Each culture has developed its own rituals and mechanisms for dealin g with death. These mechanisms serve to provide solace, a sense of continuity, and allow the culture to continue even as the members of the community cannot. However, our own culture has experienced many shattering changes that have altered the nature of dying. Suddenly we are forced to rethink the issue of death and we must decide what types of behavior are ethical when someone is dying. Before we can examine the debate about the ethics of dying, we must examine why the debate exists. Perhaps the main reason that death has changed in western culture has to do with advances in medicine and technology. Many of the diseases that have historically killed people are now no longer a threat to most individuals. Medicine has made a variety of advances in the treatment of diseases such as smallpox, tuberculosis, malaria, pneumonia, polio, influenza, and measles. People now rarely die of such traditional causes. Life expectancy has risen to almost 75 years in the United States. The quality o f life has also changed fundamentally during the past 100 years. Not only does almost everyone in the United States have enough to eat, but people eat higher on the food chain. There is a great deal more meat and animal fat in modern diets. Just these differences alone have changed death significantly. People now develop heart disease, adult onset diabetes, cancers, and AIDS. These types of diseases are more the result of lifestyle than bacteria. With these new diseases, suffering is often more prolonged and treatment is frequently quite painful. Also, as people are living longer, the diseases of the aged have become increasingly prevalent. Many more people now suffer from problems like senile dementia and Alzheimers disease. These diseases ruin the mind while preserving the body, allowing life to continue long after any quality that the life might have is gone. If what we die of has changed, perhaps the way that we die has changed even more. Throughout history, death has been a family affair. People usually died in the home after a short bout with an illness or as the result of an accident. Today, increasingly, death occurs in an institutional setting such as a convalescent home or a hospital, after a variety of technologies are applied in an attempt to prolong the life of the sick person. Often these technologies can be quite effective. People can now live for months and even years attached to a variety of tubes and technol ogies. About 75% of all deaths in 1987 occurred in hospitals and long term care facilities, up from 50% in 1950 . . . The Office of Technology Assessment Task Force estimated in 1988 that 3775 to 6575 persons were dependent on mechanical ventilation and 1,404,500 persons were receiving artificial nutritional support. This growing capability to forestall death has contributed to the increased attention to medical decisions near the end of life. (CEJA, 1992, p. 2229) People realize that the chances of facing the institutionalization of death increase daily, and they feel a profound lack of control. Surveys have consistently indicated that a large majority of people in the United States would like to be allowed to end their lives before incurable and painful diseases finally kill them (CEJA, p. 2229). Because of the changes that have impacted death, with regard to both how and where we die, the debate about how we should be allowed to die has been renewed. This paper will examine the s everal facets of this debate. It will define the terms that are relevant to the debate, examine the legal state of euthanasia today, discuss the ethics of euthanasia by examining arguments made by proponents and opponents of euthanasia, and by applying several Normative Ethical Theories to the issue. Finally, it will explore the power implications that infuse the debate on euthanasia and present arguments in favor of moving toward a care based ethic of dying and away from the current rights based ethic. b. Definitions If we are to effectively understand the debate about the right to die in the United States, it is imperative that a few basic terms be understood. The first and most important term is euthanasia. Originating from the Greek terms eu (happy or good) and thanatos (death), euthanasia means literally happy death or good death. The American Medical Associations Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs defines the term as follows: Euthanasia is commonly defined as the act of bringing about the death of a hopelessly ill and suffering person in a relatively quick and painless way for reasons of mercy. In this report, the term euthanasia will signify the medical administration of a lethal agent to a patient for the purpose of relieving the patients intolerable and incurable suffering. (p. 2230) Other sources have defined euthanasia variously: The act or practice of painlessly putting to death persons suffering from incurable conditions of diseases. (Wolhandler, 1984, p. 363), . . . to refuse un wanted medical treatment or to have ongoing care withdrawn even though the patient will die if treatment is terminated. (Adams, et. al., 1992, p. 2021). Euthanasia is a general term that can actually mean a variety of different things depending upon the context in which it is used. For this reason, a number of supporting terms has become the convention when discussing euthanasia. These terms help to narrow the subject matter and distinguish between different types of euthanasia. The important terms that help to subdivide and classify euthanasia by type are voluntary/involuntary and active/passive. Voluntary euthanasia is a death performed by another with the consent of the person being killed. This consent may be in writing as in the case of a living will or advance directive. Involuntary euthanasia is a death performed by another without the consent of the person being killed. The AMAs Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs makes three distinctions concerning consent and euthanasia: Voluntary euthanasia is euthanasia that is provided to a competent person on his or her informed request. Non-voluntary euthanasia is the provision of euthanasia to an incompetent person according to a surrogates decision. Involuntary euthanasia is euthanasia performed without a c ompetent persons consent.(p. 2230) Wolhandler compares the terms in a different context.Those who condemn euthanasia of both kinds would call the involuntary form murder and the voluntary form a compounded crime of murder and suicide if administered by the physician, and suicide alone if administered by the patient himself. As far as voluntary euthanasia goes, it is impossible to separate it from suicide as a moral category; it is, indeed, a form of suicide. Voluntary euthanasia may involve participation of second parties. (p. 366) The distinction between active and passive euthanasia is not nearly as clear as the previous distinction. Although many authors claim that the difference between the two types cannot be identified or is irrelevant at best, much of the debate on the subject is over this distinction and most of the current legal issues turn on this distinction. While this paper will contend that the difference between the two should not be recognized, it is both useful and important to know where the line is drawn. The AMA, which is strongly opposed to active euthanasia, has seen fit to endorse passive euthanasia in appropriate situations. The Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs makes the distinction as follows: The physician is obligated only to offer sound medical treatment and to refrain from providing treatments that are detrimental, on balance, to the patients well being. When a physician withholds or withdraws a treatment on the request of a patient, he or she has fulfilled the obligation to offer sound treatment to the patient. The obligation to offer treatment does not include an obligation to impose treatment on an unwilling patient. In addition, the physician is not providing a harmful treatment. Withdrawing or withholding is not a treatment, but the foregoing of a treatment. (p. 2231) According to Wolhandler, (p. 367) it is t he nature of the acts performed by the second party that distinguishes between active and passive euthanasia. The courts have held that acts of omission (removal of respiratory assistance, hydration, and feeding tubes) are allowable behavior. Although unplugging a respirator and switching off a dialysis machine are arguably acts of commission, an increasing number of judges and commentators have accepted these acts as permissible passive euthanasia in both voluntary and involuntary settings. Gifford (1993) describes the difference between the two types of euthanasia this way: Passive euthanasia involves allowing a patient to die by removing her from artificial life support systems such as respirators and feeding tubes or simply discontinuing medical treatments necessary to sustain life. Active euthanasia, by contrast, involves positive steps to end the life of a patient, typically by lethal injectiond (p. 1546) The right to passive euthanasia has also been termed the right to die by some authors (Adams, et. al., p. 2021-22). With an understanding of the different types of euthanasia, we can now define some other key terms. It is important to understand how physician assisted suicide differs from euthanasia, and it is also necessary to define the terms advance directive and competence since they are crucial in determining the difference between voluntary and involuntary euthanasia. The term physician assisted suicide is somewhat self-explanatory. It occurs when a physician provides aid to a patient so they can commit suicide. However, it is also necessary to see the difference between this type of action and euthanasia. The AMAs Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs states that Euthanasia and assisted suicide differ in the degree of physician participation. Euthanasia entails a physician performing the immediate life ending action (e.g., administering a lethal injection). Assisted suicide occurs when a physician facilitates a patients death by providing the necessary means and/or information to enable the patient to perform the life-ending act (e.g., the physician provides sleeping pills and information about the lethal dose, while aware that the patient may commit suicide). (p. 2231) It is important to realize that the difference between euthanasia and assisted suicide lies in the behavior of the physician. This difference in behavior has recently become a major legal battleground that will be explored in the following pages. The advance directive has recently become an important new device to aid the terminally ill. Many states have legalized the advance directive, partly in an attempt to avoid dealing with problems associated with active euthanasia, and partly to help ease the burdens on the dying and their families. Singer (1992) provides a good definition of advance directive and explains how it is used. An advance directive is a written document completed by a competent person that aims to guide medical treatment after the person becomes incompetent. There are two types: instruction directives, which focus on the types of life-sustaining treatment that the person would want under various clinical situations, and proxy directives, which focus on who the person would want to make health care decisions if the person were unable to do so. (p. 22) The advance directive is useful because it can theoretically eliminate the need for involuntary euthanasia. It ensures that a voluntary decision is made in advance, even if the individual could not make such a situation at a later date. If everyone made use of the advance directive, there would be no need to debate policy decisions that must be made in the case of an incompetent person on life support. Because advance directives have neither been accepted nor widely used by the general public, many of the problems that could potentially be solved remain. This situation caused right to die groups in both California and Washington to propose ballot initiatives that would legalize active euthanasia (Gifford, p. 1550-51). Although active euthanasia is not legal in any United States jurisdiction, passive euthanasia is generally allowed at the request of a competent individual. Because of this it is critical to understand what constitutes competence. Courts have defined legal competence as the mental ability to make a rational decision, which includes the ability to perceive, appreciate all the relevant facts, and to reach a rational judgement upon such facts. In the euthanasia context, legal competence is the incurable s ability to understand that in requesting active euthanasia he is choosing death over life. Only clear and convincing evidence should suffice for a finding of an incurables competence. (Wolhandler, p. 366-67) c. The Legal State of Euthanasia With a knowledge of the meaningful terms that will be involved, it is important to discuss the legal state of euthanasia in the United States today. As technology has placed more and more people on life sustaining devices in this country, the courts have had to deal with several cases that pertain to euthanasia in a variety of ways. This section of the paper is designed to review those cases briefly and to assess how the rulings in those cases have set the policy for the practice of euthanasia today. The courts first dealt with euthanasia in the Quinlan case in 1976. Karen Ann Quinlan lapsed into a coma after mixing a variety of pills and alcohol at a party. After it became apparent that she would not be revived, her parents went to court to have her respirator removed. The New Jersey Supreme Court ruled that her parents had the right to have the respirator removed and that Karen be allowed to die. Ironically, because her parents did not request removal of feeding and hydration tubes , she survived nine more years curled in a fetal position in a New Jersey rest home (Wolhandler, p. 366). In this case, the New Jersey court effectively sanctioned nonvoluntary passive euthanasia. The next prominent case was decided by the New York Supreme Court in Superintendent of Belchertown State School v. Saikewicz. Here the court found that a competent patient had the right to refuse medical treatment, allowing for a patient to decide in cases of voluntary passive euthanasia (Gifford, p. 1575-76). Later, in Satz v. Perlmutter, a Florida District Court of Appeals came to essentially the same conclusion (Wolhandler, p. 372-73). In Severns v. Wilmington Medical Center, the Delaware Supreme Court gave the husband of a comatose woman the right of guardianship and the authority to remove her respirator or withhold other treatment as he saw fit. In this case the court relied on previous decisions made in Quinlan, Saikewicz, and Satz for its finding (Wolhandler, p. 373). In Thor v. Su perior Court (California), the court granted the request to withhold treatment from a severely depressed quadriplegic only after a psychiatric evaluation determined that the request was based on poor quality of life and not just on severe depression (Pugliese, 1993, p. 1326). The courts have not restricted the right of passive euthanasia to just the terminally ill. Elizabeth Bouvia was a relatively young woman who suffered from severe cerebral palsy and attempted to starve herself to death in a California hospital by requesting the removal of a nasogastric feeding tube. She was denied this request because the hospital feared it would be party to suicide. The California court of appeals ordered the physicians to remove the tube and argued that she had the right to enlist the assistance of others in ending her life (Sprung, 1990, p. 2213). The courts have also found that doctors and hospitals must at least obtain consent from third parties that would have a significant interest in the patients outcome if the patient is incompetent. In the case of Helga Wanglie, a Minnesota court denied a hospital administrator permission to disconnect her respirator against the wishes of her husband (Gifford, p. 1571). In sum, these cases indicate an emerging consensus that courts will generally allow treatment to be withheld from patients who are terminally ill if it is in the best interests of the patient and at the request of patients or family members. It is this emerging consensus that made the U.S. Supreme Courts decision in the Cruzan case so interesting. In the only euthanasia case heard to date by the U.S. Supreme Court, the justices, in a 5-4 decision, allowed to stand the decision made by the Missouri Court of Appeals not to disconnect the life support apparatus from Nancy Cruzan (Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Dept. of Health, 1990). Although the court did find that a right to refuse treatment could be found in the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and did not prohibit the courts from looking in other areas for this right (Adams, et. al., p. 2025), it also upheld the right of the State of Missouri to require . . . clear and convincing evidence that Ms. Cruzan would have desired withdrawal of these treatments. (Newman, 1991, p. 175). In the realm of physician assisted suicide, only two major cases have been decided. In the case against Dr. Timothy Quill that arose because of the publication of his article in the New England Journal of Medicine, the grand jury for the state of New York refused to return an indictment (Bender, 1992, p. 524). In the more publicized case of Dr. Jack Kervorkian, the courts have not yet decided on the constitutionality of the Michigan law that bans physician-assisted suicide. Kervorkian is currently free on bond and continues to aid other patients who wish to commit suicide (Pugliese, p. 1300-05).(1) A brief assessment of the cases described above indicates that the courts have essentially legalized voluntary passive euthanasia, finding justification to refuse or have medical treatment withheld in the constitutional right to privacy, the common law right of self determination, or the more general concept of autonomy (Gifford, p. 1575-78). With regard to involuntary passive euthanasia, the courts are generally supportive of the practice, but they have the right to insist on a more stringent standard of evidence before approving such procedures. The courts have generally employed a balancing test that weighs the patients right to privacy and self-determination against the interest of the state in preserving life. The interests of potential third parties that might desire that the patient continue to live, and the ethical image of the medical profession (Adams, et. al., p. 2022). In cases of assisted suicide, some states have laws against the practice, the AMA forbids it, most juries are refusing to find the actors guilty, and the courts have yet to decide the question. Both voluntary and involuntary active euthanasia remain illegal. d. The Debate About Euthanasia The movement to legalize active euthanasia has existed for quite some time. Initially popularized in Britain during the 19th century, it gained some adherents in the United States during the 1920s. It was the Nazi program of active euthanasia in the 1930s and 4os that cast a pall of disrepute over the practice that remains today. The revival of this movement today can largely be attributed to the onset of the issues discussed at the beginning of this paper, and to the efforts of the Hemlock Society, a group of individuals that actively promotes the right to dignified death. The Hemlock Society recently promoted ballot initiatives in both Washington and California that would have legalized active euthanasia in those states (Gifford, 1993). This revival of the right to die movement has led to hotly contested debate about the practices of active euthanasia and physician assisted suicide. This paper will attempt to encapsulate this debate by presenting the arguments made by both opponents and supporters of these procedures. Since arguments made by both sides are used in cases of euthanasia and assisted suicide, the generic term euthanasia is used for simplicity to suggest the concept of aided death unless otherwise indicated. Those opposed to euthanasia and assisted suicide present a variety of arguments in support of a ban. e. The Case Against Euthanasia Euthanasia destroys societal respect for life. By becoming commonplace and used in medical practice along with more traditional methods of healing, society becomes desensitized toward death to the point where life is no longer valuable. This attitude serves to degrade humanity and leads to a variety of social ills. In a society that devalues life, people have no compunctions about committing violent crimes and murdering others. The overall quality of life becomes seriously undermined and society as a whole deteriorates (Doerflinger, 1989, p. 16-19, Koop, 1989, p. 2-3). Once euthanasia becomes legal, opponents contend, the potential for abuse at the hands of caregivers vastly increases. Closely related to this argument is the argument that those who enjoy the exercise of power over others might become intoxicated with it and actually come to enjoy killing. One step down the path toward euthanasia simply makes it that much easier in the future to take further steps. This argument is al so referred to as the wedge theory or the slippery slope. One of the most outspoken opponents of euthanasia, University of Michigan professor of law Yale Kamisar, has articulated a three pronged attack that utilizes the wedge theory, the risk of abuse, and the risk of mistake. The proponents of the wedge theory argue that Once society accepts that life can be terminated because of its diminished quality, there is no rational way to limit euthanasia and prevent its abuse. According to this theory, voluntary euthanasia is just the thin edge of a wedge that, once in place, will be driven deeply into our society. Kamisar concludes that legalized voluntary euthanasia inevitably would lead to legalized involuntary euthanasia because it is impossible to draw a rational distinction between those who seek to die because they are a burden to themselves and those whom society seeks to kill because they are a burden to others.(2) (Wolhandler, p. 377) Many who raise the wedge or slippery slope a rgument use the Nazi experience with euthanasia as an empirical example of this process in action. They argue that a public policy of murder inexorably follows from an initial, limited step, namely the adoption of a carefully defined euthanasia program, and that a program designed to get rid of those with lives unworthy of life quickly degenerated into the holocaust (Newman, p. 167). What follows is a description of the Nazi euthanasia program excerpted from Liftons (1986) book: National Socialist euthanasia or mercy death was a program of killing persons with unworthy lives. These persons were not moribund, and their families, with the rarest exceptions, wanted them to live. It was not a good death, as the word denotes, but a systematic program of killing without any mercy whatsoever . . . The program, referred to in the National Socialist bureaucracy as T4, was not based on any law, but was initiated by a secret order traceable to Hitler and his chief physician, Karl Brandt . Ment al hospitals were required to report all chronic schizophrenics, manic-depressives, mental defectives, epileptics, and later, debilitated old persons. A separate division, the Public Transport division for the Sick, took care of the collection and transport of such patients to institutions where they were put to death . Relatives received false death certificates and even letters of condolence . . . It is estimated that during two years of this program, ninety thousand persons went to their deaths. While this description of the Nazi euthanasia program is indeed chilling, it provides within it a devastating attack against using it as justification for the slippery slope argument. Proponents of euthanasia in the United States point out that the Nazi program was not one of euthanasia, but a program of mass murder disguised as euthanasia. Gifford (p. 1570) sums up the response of several authors by stating that The Nazis hid their racist, eugenic agenda behind the term euthanasia, termi nating in secret the lives of undesirables. It must never be forgotten that the Nazi euthanasia program was never euthanasia at all. That the Nazis co-opted the term for their own purposes should not obscure the fact that their motive was, from the very beginning, entirely different from that of todays euthanasia proponents. The current euthanasia movement is anything but covert. The Hemlock Society and other supporters of the right to receive aid in dying have spent millions of dollars to publicize their efforts. In this context, death is presented as a positive alternative to pain and suffering, not a utilitarian tool. Proponents of euthanasia also attempt to refute the slippery slope argument in a variety of other ways. They contend that the current mechanisms used by the courts could easily prevent any slide toward involuntary euthanasia,(3) that the current practice of passive euthanasia proves that the slope isnt all that slippery since we havent witnessed any massive killing programs, and that the example of how forced sterilization in the U.S. has diminished rather than increased, provides a more appropriate example to rely on. Even Callahan (1989), a vocal opponent of active euthanasia, admits that the Nazi experience is not particularly applicable to the U.S. experience and that Lives are not b eing shortened. They are steadily being lengthened, and particularly for those who are the most powerless: sick children and the very old, the mentally and mentally retarded, the disabled and the demented (p. 4). Newman (1991) also attacks the concept of the slippery slope itself. Arguing that just pointing out that one type of action could conceivably lead to another constitutes a very unpersuasive argument and that for the premise to hold true, it must be shown that pressure to allow further steps will be so strong that these steps will actually occur. He also reminds us that such arguments are frequently abused in legal and social policy debate (p. 169). Besides Kamisar, the risk of abuse argument has also been put forth by a host of other authors who variously claim that assisted suicides might result in flagrant murders that may be perpetrated by deliberately forcing or coercing self-destruction and that others may advance personal motives by aiding in suicide (Adams, et. al., p. 2031); that when the entire medical profession is involved in euthanasia, including the poorly trained, the insensitive, the less skilled, there becomes the danger that physicians might not do whatever they can to avoid euthanasia if possible (Newman, p. 177); and that some people who enjoy the exercise of power over others might become addicted to the process (Doerflinger, p. 19). It is this fear of abuse that leads the AMAs Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs to argue that the ban on active euthanasia is a bright line distinction that deters this type of potential abuse. They state: Allowing physicians to perform euthanasia for a limited group of patients who may truly benefit from it will present difficult line-drawing problems for medicine and society. In specific cases it may be hard to distinguish which cases fit the criteria established for euthanasia. For example, if the existence of unbearable pain and suffering was a criterion for euthanasia, the definition of unbea rable pain and suffering could be subject to different interpretations, which might lead to abuse of the process in the case of certain practitioners. (CEJA, p. 2232). Proponents of euthanasia argue that the risk of abuse, while certainly present, is not really much of a threat. This is true first, because laws against homicide are severe enough to provide a strong deterrent (Newman, p. 178); second, because a clear set of guidelines prescribing when active euthanasia is allowed will prevent confusion (Adams, et. al., Gifford); third, because we already risk the practice of abuse by allowing passive euthanasia, and such abuse has not occurred (Newman, p. 178); and finally, that the current state of illegality promotes an absence of discussion and actually encourages the practice of clandestine euthanasia (Newman, p. 177). As Gifford (p. 1572) succinctly puts it, what slope could be more slippery than one with no guardrails whatsoever? Additionally, the balancing tests already in place by the legal system should serve to eliminate this problem. Adams, et. al., (p. 2034) explain: For example, some opponents of physician-assisted suicide argue that pe rmitting some assisted suicides may lead to the killing of patients who want to live. This slippery slope argument expresses a utilitarian rationale for prohibiting suicide assistance. Others argue that suicide and the assistance of suicide is intrinsically evil, and that sanctioning them will damage the fabric of social morality. These and other utilitarian and moral considerations are encompassed within the states interest in preserving the sanctity of all life and affect its weight in the balance against the patients interest in self-determination. Opponents of euthanasia contend that there is no guarantee that euthanasia will be strictly voluntary. The potential for sub